Muhammad Ali Campaign To Arabian Peninsula

In 1816, Muhammad Ali Pasha declared his campaign against the Hijaz under the direction of the Ottoman Sublime Porte, led by his son Ibrahim. This was the second Egyptian campaign against the Al Saud state, following the failed campaign of 1811, which ended with a reconciliation between his son Tosun Pasha and the son of Saud. Ibrahim left Egypt leading a great army headed for the Hijaz to eliminate the fledgling Saudi state, formed by the famous alliance between Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab and the Al Saud led by Muhammad bin Saud, the governor of Diriyah at the time.

Who is Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab? He was an imam, judge, and a strict religious figure influenced by the ideas of Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim. His father was the mufti of ‘Uyayna in Najd, but he was later expelled due to his extremism. People grew weary of his strict behavior and his insistence on implementing Sharia law in a harsh and uncompromising manner, leading the ruler of ‘Uyayna to isolate him from religious affairs and exile him from the village. He sought refuge with the Al Saud in Diriyah, where the ruler, Muhammad bin Saud, welcomed him, entrusted him with religious affairs, and appointed him as the judge in Diriyah around 1744 CE.

Once settled, Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab began advocating for a return to pure Islamic teachings without any deviations such as distortion or polytheism, as he termed it. He enforced Sharia law, demolished structures built over graves, banned music and singing in gatherings, and his strict teachings gained popularity, attracting a large following who pledged allegiance to him and Ibn Saud to fight for the restoration of true religious teachings, rejecting polytheism and innovations. This led to the formation of what later became known as the Wahhabi movement. Ibn Saud, leading the movement, initiated raids on Saudi towns and villages, annexing them into his new kingdom. As the rule of Al Saud stabilized in Diriyah and its surroundings, they began expanding towards Shia centers in southern Iraq, attacking Karbala and Najaf in famous invasions that resulted in significant casualties and the destruction of parts of these holy cities’ religious sites and the massacre of their inhabitants, prompting the late intervention of the Ottoman Empire to protect its subjects, albeit belatedly. Subsequently, in 1802, Mecca and Medina were incorporated into the Saudi state, expelling the Ottoman governors from the Hijaz and ceasing to acknowledge Ottoman authority from the pulpits of the holy cities. Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab, in line with his beliefs, destroyed much of the Islamic heritage in Mecca and Medina, including the tombs and houses attributed to the companions and caliphs, erasing all traces of them. He even attempted to demolish the Green Dome over the Prophet’s Mosque, but Ibn Saud intervened, and the locals resisted the demolition at that time. The events escalated, and the state of Ibn Saud expanded, prompting the Ottoman government to request Muhammad Ali to restore order in the Hijaz and defeat Ibn Saud. Initially hesitant, Muhammad Ali Pasha eventually executed the order, launching an initial military campaign led by his son Tosun Pasha, which did not achieve its objectives, followed by a military campaign led by Ibrahim Pasha.

Ibrahim Pasha arrived in the Hijaz at the beginning of the year 1817 and encountered the Wahhabis in several battles, including Al-Mutan and Al-Shaqra. In these battles, Ibrahim Pasha’s army emerged victorious, inflicting significant casualties on the Saudi forces. As a result, Ibn Saud fled to Diriyah. Subsequently, numerous battles ensued, characterized by guerrilla warfare until reinforcements arrived from Cairo to Najd in 1818. This culminated in Ibrahim Pasha seizing Diriyah, capturing Abdullah bin Saud, along with other senior leaders of the state and the grandson of Ibn Abdul Wahhab. They were brought to Cairo, where Muhammad Ali Pasha treated them well and extended his hospitality. Later, Ibn Saud and two of his companions were sent to Istanbul, where they were paraded through the city by the military as a form of punishment before being executed. Meanwhile, the remaining members of the Saud and Al Sheikh families were honored and respected in Cairo until their return to the Hijaz.

Eventually, the descendants of Abdullah bin Saud returned to Najd to establish the second Saudi state. However, this state weakened after the death of its founder, Turki bin Abdullah bin Saud. His son, Faisal, assumed power but faced internal disputes among his sons, exacerbating tensions. After Faisal’s death, these fears materialized as his sons disagreed over governance. Saud aligned with the British, while Abdullah sought Ottoman support, leading to a military campaign from Iraq to reclaim the Hijaz. This clashed with British ambitions, as they began exerting control over southern Arabia, especially after defeating the Qawasim, who ruled many important ports, laying the groundwork for what is now known as the United Arab Emirates in a significant naval battle in 1820.

Concurrently, the second Saudi state deteriorated under the leadership of Abdul Rahman bin Faisal bin Turki bin Abdullah bin Saud. His reign ended with the loss of Riyadh in 1891 to the Al Rashid family, who initially ruled over Jabal Shammar and later extended their control over all of Najd. They attempted expansion towards Kuwait and the eastern Emirates on the Gulf, but faced opposition from the British, who considered the Gulf Emirates their protected territories. Meanwhile, the Sauds, who sought refuge in Kuwait after the collapse of their state, united with the Al Sabah family to resist Rashid expansion towards Kuwait, seeking Ottoman assistance in repelling the attacks. Several battles ensued, resulting in Kuwait’s army’s defeat, although the Rashids refrained from occupying Kuwait, fearing Ottoman retaliation, especially after Kuwait declared itself officially subordinate to Basra. During this time, Abdul Aziz bin Saud, another descendant of the rulers of the second Saudi state, attempted to raid Riyadh to reclaim it but failed initially. However, he succeeded later, killing its governor and recapturing Riyadh in 1902. Exploiting the Rashids’ preoccupation with Kuwait and negotiations with the Ottomans over Kuwait’s control, Abdul Aziz expanded southward. After failing to reach an agreement with the Rashids regarding Kuwait, Abdul Aziz turned south to regain lost territories for the Sauds, engaging in several battles with them, which didn’t yield decisive results due to the fortified defenses of Riyadh and the alliances the Rashids built with tribes opposed to Al Saud rule. Additionally, the support the Sauds received from the Al Sabahs and, subsequently, the Ottomans prolonged the conflict. However, the tide eventually turned in favor of the Saud state, as they gradually advanced towards Rashid cities, culminating in the occupation of Hail, the capital of the Rashid state, in 1921.

The House of Saud began a new phase of governance over Najd and the Hijaz in collaboration with the British, overthrowing their old ally, the Ottoman Empire. With British assistance, Ibn Saud began moving westward to gain control over the holiest regions, which were under the authority of the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein, in cooperation with the British, who had turned against their main ally in their battle against the Ottoman Empire. Sharif Hussein rejected the British-French division of Iraq and the Levant, including Palestine. Ibn Saud did not object to the northern regions, especially Palestine and the Levant, being outside his authority. In these complex circumstances, the British began coordinating with the Ikhwan army, led by Ibn Saud, who benefited from British money and weapons, using them at the opportune moment to seize control of the western holy lands.